Deoxynivalenol Contamination Of Wheat Research Articles

Mycobiome mediates the interaction between environmental factors and mycotoxin contamination in wheat grains

Environmental factors significantly impact grain mycobiome assembly and mycotoxin contamination. However, there is still a lack of understanding regarding the wheat mycobiome and the role of fungal communities in the interaction between environmental factors and mycotoxins. In this study, we collected wheat grain samples from 12 major wheat-producing provinces in China during both the harvest and storage periods. Our aim was to evaluate the mycobiomes in wheat samples with varying deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination levels and to confirm the correlation between environmental factors, the wheat mycobiome, and mycotoxins. The results revealed significant differences in the wheat mycobiome and co-occurrence network between contaminated and uncontaminated wheat samples. Fusarium was identified as the main differential taxon responsible for inducing DON contamination in wheat. Correlation analysis identified key factors affecting mycotoxin contamination. The results indicate that both environmental factors and the wheat mycobiome play significant roles in the production and accumulation of DON. Environmental factors can affect the wheat mycobiome assembly, and wheat mycobiome mediates the interaction between environmental factors and mycotoxin contamination. Furthermore, a random forest (RF) model was developed using key biological indicators and environmental features to predict DON contamination in wheat with accuracies exceeding 90 %. The findings provide data support for the accurate prediction of mycotoxin contamination and lay the foundation for the research on biological control technologies of mycotoxin through the assembly of synthetic microbial communities.

Prediction of Deoxynivalenol Contamination in Wheat via Infrared Attenuated Total Reflection Spectroscopy and Multivariate Data Analysis.

The climate crisis further exacerbates the challenges for food production. For instance, the increasingly unpredictable growth of fungal species in the field can lead to an unprecedented high prevalence of several mycotoxins, including the most important toxic secondary metabolite produced by Fusarium spp., i.e., deoxynivalenol (DON). The presence of DON in crops may cause health problems in the population and livestock. Hence, there is a demand for advanced strategies facilitating the detection of DON contamination in cereal-based products. To address this need, we introduce infrared attenuated total reflection (IR-ATR) spectroscopy combined with advanced data modeling routines and optimized sample preparation protocols. In this study, we address the limited exploration of wheat commodities to date via IR-ATR spectroscopy. The focus of this study was optimizing the extraction protocol for wheat by testing various solvents aligned with a greener and more sustainable analytical approach. The employed chemometric method, i.e., sparse partial least-squares discriminant analysis, not only facilitated establishing robust classification models capable of discriminating between high vs low DON-contaminated samples adhering to the EU regulatory limit of 1250 μg/kg but also provided valuable insights into the relevant parameters shaping these models.

Use of carrageenan for the reduction of deoxynivalenol contamination in wheat and barley kernels

Wheat and barley are among the more important staple foods for human and animal nutrition in the World. Nevertheless, these crops constantly suffer from the Fusarium Heat Blight disease, responsible for decrease in yields and the bioaccumulation of the trichothecene deoxynivalenol in kernels. Searching for alternatives to overcome these problems, a set of 14 trials involving wheat and barley cultivars over two consecutive harvest seasons (2018-2019) were carried out in the States of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The tests consisted in the use of a carrageenan-rich product (Algomel Push®) produced from the red-algae Solieria chordalis in the rates of 1.0 and 2.0 L ha-1 sprayed at the beginning of the tillering stage. Overall, the use of carrageenan decreased DON contamination up to 34.64% and 35.74% when 1.0 and 2.0 L ha-1 of carrageenan was applied in wheat and barley, respectively. An increase in yield and kernels with better bromatological aspects were also seen after the use of carrageenan. Our findings suggest that the bioactive compounds found in the product, mostly carrageenan, have the ability of eliciting the plant’s mechanisms of defence and growth, and can be considered a potential option/tool for farmers and industries to cope with the problem of food quality in their mycotoxicological and bromatological aspects.
 Key-words: DON; elicitation; FHB; Fusarium graminearum; Solieria chordalis

Development of a Direct Competitive ELISA Kit for Detecting Deoxynivalenol Contamination in Wheat.

This study was conducted to develop a self-assembled direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (dcELISA) kit for the detection of deoxynivalenol (DON) in food and feed grains. Based on the preparation of anti-DON monoclonal antibodies, we established a standard curve with dcELISA and optimized the detection conditions. The performance of the kit was evaluated by comparison with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The minimum detection limit of DON with the kit was 0.62 ng/mL, the linear range was from 1.0 to 113.24 ng/mL and the half-maximal inhibition concentration (IC50) was 6.61 ng/mL in the working buffer; there was a limit of detection (LOD) of 62 ng/g, and the detection range was from 100 to 11324 ng/g in authentic agricultural samples. We examined four samples of wheat bran, wheat flour, corn flour and corn for DON recovery. The average recovery was in the range of 77.1% to 107.0%, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) ranged from 4.2% to 11.9%. In addition, the kit has the advantages of high specificity, good stability, a long effective life and negligible sample matrix interference. Finally, wheat samples from farms in the six provinces of Henan, Anhui, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu and Gansu in China were analyzed by the kit. A total of 30 samples were randomly checked (five samples in each province), and the results were in good agreement with the standardized HPLC method. These tests showed that the dcELISA kit had good performance and met relevant technical requirements, and it had the characteristics of accuracy, reliability, convenience and high-throughput screening for DON detection. Therefore, the developed kit is suitable for rapid screening of DON in marketed products.

Impact of microalgal phenolic extracts on the control of Fusarium graminearum and deoxynivalenol contamination in wheat

In this study, microalgal phenolic extracts (MPE) of Nannochloropsis sp. and Spirulina sp. were tested in in vitro experiments and, in comparison with synthetic fungicides, in field experiments, for their ability to control Fusarium graminearum development and limit deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination. In in vitro experiments, the Nannochloropsis and Spirulina extracts inhibited fungal biomass by 34 and 25%, respectively, compared with the untreated control. This effect was confirmed by a reduction in ergosterol production (-80% for Nannochloropsis and -75% for Spirulina) and in DON content (-97% for Nannochloropsis and -62% for Spirulina). In field experiments, application of the fungicide prothioconazole and prothioconazole + tebuconazole resulted in control of Fusarium head blight (FHB) and foliar disease, leading to a significant increase in grain yield (+13%) and a reduction in DON content (-46%) compared to the untreated control. The application of MPE at wheat flowering reduced the severity of FHB compared with the control (-35% for Spirulina and -39% for Nannochloropsis). However, the MPE did not significantly control foliar diseases (Septoria tritici blotch) and therefore did not enhance the grain yield. Moreover, no effect in reducing the DON content in comparison to the control was observed in the field. In view of that, the use of MPE in wheat fields as real alternatives to conventional fungicides requires the discovery of solutions to empower their persistence and efficacy.

Costs of preventive agronomic measures to reduce deoxynivalenol in wheat

SUMMARYCereals are of major importance in human and animal nutrition, and the mycotoxin content is of great health and economic concern for the food sector and consumers. In Europe, Fusarium graminearum (FG) is the prevalent Fusarium species leading to Fusarium head blight on small grain cereals and contamination of grains by its main mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). The present study assessed the costs of preventive agronomic measures to reduce the risk of DON contamination in wheat besides the use of fungicides. The abatement costs were calculated by linking actual data on wheat production costs and profits with assessments of DON contents based on results of the forecast model FusaProg for the period 2005–2011. Analysis revealed that ploughing was a relatively efficient measure to reduce DON risk compared with modifying crop rotation or growing a more FG-resistant wheat variety. Given a threshold value of 1·25 mg DON/kg wheat, a reduction of 0·1 mg DON was related to additional production costs of at least 2·5%. These economic findings are of relevance for farmers and policy makers in order to define sustainable production systems enabling both a high level of food safety and reducing the use of plant protection products.

Deoxynivalenol in wheat and wheat products from a harvest affected by fusarium head blight

Fusarium head blight is an important disease occurring in wheat, caused mainly by the fungus Fusarium graminearum. In addition to direct damage to crops, reduced quality and yield losses, the infected grains can accumulate mycotoxins (toxic metabolites originating from prior fungal growth), especially deoxynivalenol (DON). Wheat crops harvested in 2014/2015 in southern Brazil were affected by high levels of Fusarium head blight. In this context, the aim of this study was evaluate the mycotoxicological quality of Brazilian wheat grains and wheat products (wheat flour and wheat bran for DON. DON contamination was evaluated in 1,504 wheat and wheat product samples produced in Brazil during 2014. It was determined by high performance liquid chromatograph fitted to a mass spectrometer (LC-MS / MS). The results showed that 1,000 (66.5%) out of the total samples tested were positive for DON. The mean level of sample contamination was 1047 µg.kg-1, but only 242 samples (16.1%) had contamination levels above the maximum permissible levels (MPL) - the maximum content allowed by current Brazilian regulation. As of 2017, MPL will be stricter. Thus, research should be conducted on DON contamination of wheat and wheat products, since wheat is a raw material widely used in the food industry, and DON can cause serious harm to public health.

Impact of Climate Change Effects on Contamination of Cereal Grains with Deoxynivalenol

Climate change is expected to aggravate feed and food safety problems of crops; however, quantitative estimates are scarce. This study aimed to estimate impacts of climate change effects on deoxynivalenol contamination of wheat and maize grown in the Netherlands by 2040. Quantitative modelling was applied, considering both direct effects of changing climate on toxin contamination and indirect effects via shifts in crop phenology. Climate change projections for the IPCC A1B emission scenario were used for the scenario period 2031-2050 relative to the baseline period of 1975-1994. Climatic data from two different global and regional climate model combinations were used. A weather generator was applied for downscaling climate data to local conditions. Crop phenology models and prediction models for DON contamination used, each for winter wheat and grain maize. Results showed that flowering and full maturity of both wheat and maize will advance with future climate. Flowering advanced on average 5 and 11 days for wheat, and 7 and 14 days for maize (two climate model combinations). Full maturity was on average 10 and 17 days earlier for wheat, and 19 and 36 days earlier for maize. On the country level, contamination of wheat with deoxynivalenol decreased slightly, but not significantly. Variability between regions was large, and individual regions showed a significant increase in deoxynivalenol concentrations. For maize, an overall decrease in deoxynivalenol contamination was projected, which was significant for one climate model combination, but not significant for the other one. In general, results disagree with previous reported expectations of increased feed and food safety hazards under climate change. This study illustrated the relevance of using quantitative models to estimate the impacts of climate change effects on food safety, and of considering both direct and indirect effects when assessing climate change impacts on crops and related food safety hazards.

Modeling deoxynivalenol contamination of wheat in northwestern Europe for climate change assessments.

Climate change will affect mycotoxin contamination of feed and food. Mathematical models for predicting mycotoxin concentrations in cereal grains are useful for estimating the impact of climate change on these toxins. The objective of the current study was to construct a descriptive model to estimate climate change impacts on deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination of mature wheat grown in northwestern Europe. Observational data from 717 wheat fields in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and The Netherlands were analyzed, including the DON concentrations in mature wheat, agronomical practices, and local weather. Multiple regression analyses were conducted, and the best set of explanatory variables, mainly including weather factors, was selected. The final model included the following variables: flowering date, length of time between flowering and harvest, wheat resistance to Fusarium infection, and several climatic variables related to relative humidity, temperature, and rainfall during critical stages of wheat cultivation. The model accounted for 50 % of the variance, which was sufficient to make this model useful for estimating the trends of climate change on DON contamination of wheat in northwestern Europe. Application of the model in possible climate change scenarios is illustrated.

Integrated strategies for the control of Fusarium head blight and deoxynivalenol contamination in winter wheat

Fusarium head blight (FHB) disease and deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination of wheat grains depend on multiple factors, above all climatic conditions, but also agronomic factors such as crop rotation, debris management, variety susceptibility and fungicide applications. Although it is generally believed that multiple strategies are more successful than a single strategy, only a few studies have shown the quantitative effect of combining multiple strategies.Field experiments have been conducted over three growing seasons in three sites in Northern Italy to evaluate the effect of previous crop residue management through tillage, variety susceptibility and triazole fungicide application on common wheat, according to a full factorial scheme. The following parameters were analyzed: FHB severity, grain yield and DON contamination.The collected data have clearly shown a close interaction between the factors involved in FHB severity and DON content, while the interactions were less significant for grain yield. In all nine trials, the DON contamination was significantly affected by the interaction of at least two of the compared factors, while the interaction between all three factors involved was significant in four trials. The most favourable scenario to avoid DON contamination (ploughing, moderately resistant variety, triazole application at heading) reduced the DON content by 97% compared to the worst one (direct sowing, susceptible variety, no fungicide application).Since the interaction between the agricultural practices have shown a synergistic effect, integrated multiple strategies, in areas characterized by a high risk of FHB, can be considered the very effective management means of reducing FHB and DON contamination in wheat.

Fusarium head blight and deoxynivalenol contamination in wheat as affected by nitrogen fertilization

Many studies have evaluated the effects of nitrogen-fertilizer rates on Fusarium head blight (FHB) and mycotoxin contamination of wheat ( Triticum aestivum) in both conventional and organic systems. Results are often conflicting while underlying mechanisms remain illusive. This study aimed to provide insights into these conflicting results. Spring wheat was grown at two sites in the Netherlands in 2006 and 2007 using compost-, slurry-, or farmyard manure-based organic fertilizing systems, each with five total-nitrogen rates. In 2006, overall Fusarium infection levels and deoxynivalenol (DON) contents of the grain were low, and the data suggested a positive, multivariate relation between DON content and grain-nitrogen content. Higher DON contents were also accompanied by more vegetative growth (straw biomass). In 2007, plant density of the crop was relatively low while overall FHB infection levels and DON contents were relatively high. In this year, no clear correlations between straw dry matter production or grain-nitrogen content and DON content were found, while weed infestation increased with higher nitrogen levels. Practical implications of the multivariate relations between N-rates, N-contents, DON, microclimate and the presence of weeds are discussed.

A biomarker survey of urinary deoxynivalenol in China: the Shanghai Women's Health Study

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a trichothecene mycotoxin found on wheat, maize and barley. In ecological surveys in China, DON and other trichothecenes have been implicated in acute poisoning episodes and linked with the incidence of esophageal cancer. In order to better understand exposure patterns, this pilot survey provided a combined measure of urinary un-metabolised or free DON (fD) and its glucuronide metabolite (DG) in a subset of 60 samples taken from the Shanghai Women's Health Study cohort, China. Samples were collected in 1997/1998 from women age 40–70 years. Urinary fD+DG combined was detected in 58/60 (96.7%) samples (mean 5.9 ng DON/mg creatinine; range nd – 30.5); a similar frequency, and a mean level approximately half, of that previously observed for women in the UK. Wheat consumption was approximately 25% of that consumed by western diets; thus DON contamination of wheat may be higher in Shanghai than the UK. The de-epoxy metabolite of DON, a detoxification product observed in animals, was not detected, suggesting that humans may be particularly sensitive to DON due to a more restricted detoxification capacity.

On-farm experiments over 5 years in a grain maize/winter wheat rotation: effect of maize residue treatments on Fusarium graminearum infection and deoxynivalenol contamination in wheat

Over the course of 5 years, different maize residue treatments were conducted on 14 zero tillage on-farm sites in Switzerland to evaluate their effect on the development of Fusarium head blight (FHB) and the contamination with the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) in winter wheat grains and wheat straw following grain maize. Two experimental series with three and five different treatments were carried out, respectively. Fusarium graminearum (Schwabe) was the predominant FHB-causing species with an overall incidence of 15% infected wheat grains. A significant correlation between symptoms in the field, F. graminearum incidence and DON content in wheat grains and wheat straw was observed. The average DON content in both wheat grains and wheat straw was approximately 5,000 μg/kg and thus several times higher than the European maximum limit of 1,250 μg/kg for unprocessed small-grain cereals for human consumption. Of all grain samples, 74% were above the maximum limit. Pooled over both experimental series, the average reduction of DON in grains through treatments of the maize residue compared with a control treatment ranged between 21 and 38%. The effect of various other factors, including the year, the wheat variety, the site, the maize hybrid and the production system was evaluated as well. The year and the wheat variety were the most important FHB influencing factors. Over all treatments, the variety Levis showed a fivefold higher average DON content compared with the variety Titlis. From different categories of maize residue particles, intact pieces of 5-15 cm length were strongly correlated with F. graminearum incidence and DON content in grains. During the time course of this study, the recommendation from a preliminary version of the internet-based DON forecasting system FusaProg to apply or to omit a fungicide treatment was correct in 32 out of 42 cases. The results are currently being used to optimise the FusaProg models. This study has shown that in a grain maize/winter wheat rotation, the DON content in wheat grains frequently exceeded the European maximum limit, even with a thorough treatment of maize residues and less susceptible wheat varieties. Hence, in order to reduce the contamination risk in a zero tillage system, the crop rotation needs to be modified.

Evaluation of Several Foliar Fungicides for Controlling Fusarium Head Blight and Deoxynivalenol Contamination in Wheat

Evaluation of Several Foliar Fungicides for Controlling Fusarium Head Blight and Deoxynivalenol Contamination in Wheat

Review of predictive models for Fusarium head blight and related mycotoxin contamination in wheat

Mould growth and mycotoxin production are related to plant stress caused by environmental factors such as: extreme weather; insect damage; inadequate storage conditions and incorrect fertilization; these predispose plants to mycotoxin contamination in the field. Fusarium species infect wheat during the flowering period. In addition to losses of yield, these fungi can also synthesize toxic components (mycotoxins) in suitable environmental conditions, thus threatening animal and human health. Given the severe consequences and the fact that mycotoxins affect production throughout the world, the ability to predict Fusarium head blight (FHB) and deoxynivalenol (DON) and other mycotoxin contamination is important to reduce the year-to-year risk for producers. Owing to these dangerous consequences in Argentina, Belgium, Canada, Italy, the United States and in Europe, computer models, based on weather variables (temperature, rainfall and moisture level), have been developed to predict the occurrence of FHB and DON contamination in wheat.

Influence of nitrogen fertilization on deoxynivalenol contamination of winter wheat — experimental field trials and evaluation of analytical methods

Experimental field trials were carried out to study the influence of N-fertilization on deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination of winter wheat.Within four years of investigation, no definite effect of mineral N-input at dosages varying between 0 and 240 kg N/ha could be observed on DON concentration in wheat grain. The main factors affecting DON contamination of wheat were theFusarium infection pressure, the weather conditions and the susceptibility of the wheat varieties againstFusarium head blight.DON was analyzed with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and, for comparison, some of the positive samples were additionally analyzed with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). There was a good correlation between the ELISA and the HPLC results for DON concentration in wheat.

Reduced intake of deoxynivalenol in The Netherlands: a risk assessment update

In 1998 and 1999, wheat contained high levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) in The Netherlands. Eighty percent of the 1-year-old children exceeded the TDI (20% exceeded 2TDI). Assuming a long-term intake a negative effect on body weight might be possible. In 1999 the Dutch government took several risk management measures. We performed a probabilistic exposure and effect assessment and compared current and previous DON exposure and potential health effects for young children. The DON contamination of wheat was reduced for 50%. The estimated DON-intake was reduced to one-third of the previous levels. One-year-old children showed the highest DON-intake with a median of 0.46 μg/kg bw/day (95th percentile: 1.00 μg/kg bw/day). The probabilistic effect assessment showed that at the 95th percentile of DON-intake a reduced body weight was unlikely to exceed 9%. Taking into account the possible (partly) reversibility of this effect we conclude that no clear adverse health effects will be associated to the exposure (February 2000–December 2002) to DON in The Netherlands.

The Effect of Nitrogen Fertilization on Fusarium Head Blight Development and Deoxynivalenol Contamination in Wheat

AbstractThe impact of nitrogen (N) fertilization on the development of Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat and the resulting deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination in the kernels was studied. In a first experiment, the disease was assessed on two locations under natural infection pressure. Five different types of nitrogen fertilizer (both organic and mineral) were investigated, each applied at five input rates from 0 to 160 kg N/ha. With all fertilizers, a significant increase of disease intensity was observed with increasing N input, while the type of N fertilizer had poor or no effects on FHB. Depending on the fertilizer used, the percentage of diseased spikelets increased from 2.2% at zero N rate up to 6.6% at 160 kg N input per hectare. In a second series of trials, three spring wheat varieties including one Durum wheat line were artificially inoculated with a Fusarium graminearum and a F. culmorum strain, known producers of DON. A mineral N fertilizer was applied at five input levels from 0 to 160 kg N/ha. A significant increase in FHB intensity and DON contamination in the grain was observed with increasing N from 0 to 80 kg/ha. At higher input rates, relevant in contemporary crop husbandry, disease intensity and toxin contamination remained at constant levels. It is concluded that adaptation of N fertilization represents no relevant tool in managing FHB in practical wheat cultivation.

Provisional standard for tolerable level of deoxynivalenol contamination in wheat

Provisional standard for tolerable level of deoxynivalenol contamination in wheat

A Biosensor-based Immunoassay for Rapid Screening of Deoxynivalenol Contamination in Wheat

A surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based indirect inhibitive immunoassay was developed for the rapid quantification of concentrations of the trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). A DON-biotin conjugate was synthesized and immobilized to a streptavidin coated SPR sensor surface to measure free anti-DON antibody added to a sample. For analysis, ground wheat was extracted with 10% (v/v) methanol in water with 6% (w/v) polyvinyl-pyrrolidone, filtered and cleaned up with MycoSep columns. Extracts were mixed with a polyclonal anti-DON antibody and pre-incubated prior to injection into a BIAcore® device. The sensor surface was regenerated with a rinse of 6 M-guanidinechloride in 10 mm-glycine (pH 2.9). The assay had a working range between 0.13 and 10.0 w g ml m 1 of DON, a 50% inhibition concentration (IC 50 ) of 0.72 w g ml m 1 , and a detection limit of 2.5 pg w l m 1 . Recovery of DON in spiked wheat was 104 - 15%. The system enables analysis of a sample to be completed in 15 min including sample preparation (10 min) and quantification (5 min). The assay was applied to the analysis of wheat samples with different levels of DON contamination. Statistical analysis revealed a positive, linear correlation between concentrations of DON measured with the new biosensor and GC/MS or HPLC as reference methods. Coefficients of correlation of R 2 = 0.9464 (GC/MS data) and R 2 = 0.9066 (HPLC data) were found.